Ancient Philosophy
Western philosophy from Thales (~624 BCE) to the fall of Rome (476 CE). The birth of rational inquiry — cosmology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics emerged here.
Sub-topics
The first Western philosophers (6th-5th century BCE). They asked: what is everything made of? Thales said water, Heraclitus said fire and flux, Parmenides said change is illusion, Democritus said atoms.
Socrates of Athens (470-399 BCE). Wrote nothing; known through Plato's dialogues. Invented the Socratic method — relentless questioning to expose ignorance. 'The unexamined life is not worth living.' Executed for impiety and corrupting youth.
Plato (428-348 BCE). Student of Socrates, founded the Academy. Theory of Forms: true reality is abstract, eternal, perfect Ideas — the physical world is mere shadow. Allegory of the Cave. Philosopher-kings should rule.
Aristotle (384-322 BCE). Student of Plato, tutor to Alexander. Systematized logic, ethics, politics, biology, metaphysics. Rejected Plato's separate Forms — universals exist in particulars. Founded the Lyceum.
Founded by Zeno of Citium (~300 BCE). Virtue is the only good; external events are indifferent. Live according to nature and reason. Control what you can, accept what you cannot. Thrived from Athens to Rome.
Founded by Epicurus (~341-270 BCE). Pleasure (ataraxia — tranquility) is the highest good, but true pleasure is the absence of pain, not hedonistic excess. Atomist physics, no fear of death or gods.
Founded by Antisthenes and Diogenes of Sinope (~4th century BCE). Reject convention, live according to nature, pursue virtue through radical simplicity. Diogenes lived in a barrel and told Alexander to move out of his sunlight.
Pyrrho of Elis (~360-270 BCE) and later Academic Skeptics. Suspend judgment (epoche) on all claims — neither affirm nor deny. True peace of mind comes from abandoning the pursuit of certainty.
Late ancient synthesis of Plato with mystical and metaphysical elements (3rd-6th century CE). Reality emanates from the One through stages of decreasing perfection. Profoundly influenced Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.